Principles+&+Theories+Supporting+the+Concept

=__Principles & Theories Supporting the Concept__= =Motivation Theories =

**Introduction**
Angie Iafrate

Individual motivation in the workplace, say Weinbach and Taylor, refers to "the needs that [staff members] attempt to meet through their work" (2011, p. 202). A good social work manager will attempt to meet these needs of his/her employees to the most realistic degree possible, recognizing that the fewer needs which preoccupy the mind of the worker, the more energies s/he will have to dedicate to the agency. This question of motivation is not a new one--lucky for the social work manager with an already-full plate! Thinkers and theorists throughout the ages have attempted to define what generally motivates human behavior. As can be seen in early classical management theories like those of Frederick Taylor, the answer for some has been as simple as money. Later theories gravitated towards a more complex view motivation, for example Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, which asserted that there are different levels of needs which motivate behavior, ranging from basic survival needs to self-actualization. (This theory will be discussed in more detail below, along with others.) Of course, even Maslow's theory and those which followed do not give the manager any "easy answers" as to what will motivate the individual and diverse staff members who are collectively working for his/her single agency. Nevertheless, they do offer insights to help guide the manager toward an understanding of his/her staff members, accounting more for human complexity than do the classical management theories which are based on the notion that a worker's motivation is purely economic. Several of those more modern theories will be examined below.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Angie Iafrate

//Figure 1: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Traditional// (image credit: [])

In 1943, American psychologist Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs, suggesting that all people have a range of needs from the basic physiological (food, air, water, etc.) to those of self-actualization and are motivated by the quest to meet those needs. The basic physiological needs sit at the bottom of the hierarchy's pyramid, while the higher levels of needs close out its tip. The five levels distinguished in the theory are as follows: physiological, safety, belonging, esteem, and self actualization. (//Figure 1//.) Once a person has met the lower levels of needs, s/he moves on to be motivated by the next level of need. The visual representation of the pyramid, with biological and physical needs at the bottom and largest part and self-actualization occupying only the smallest portion at the top, suggests that more people are functioning at lower-level needs with significantly fewer having met those needs and operating at the level of self-actualization. This, in fact, is one of the criticisms of Maslow's theory, with alternative shapes proposed to represent the hierarchy. For example, some suggest simply inverting the pyramid, while others suggest an open triangle(//Figure 2//), whose open top represents the "boundlessness of self-actualization," or the idea that there "is no end to one's potential" (Kiel, 1999). In any case, no matter the shape, Maslow's theory continues to be an influential one today and is one from which managers can pull when determining the needs of employees.



//Figure 2: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, Open Triangle// (Kiel, 1999)

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
Angie Iafrate

Frederick Herzberg distinguished between two work factors: hygiene and motivation. The former are those such as salary, job security, good working conditions, and fringe benefits (Weinbach & Taylor, p. 205). According to Herzberg, hygiene factors are not motivators; rather, their presence can satisfy the worker, or their absence can cause dissastifaction. Motivation factors are those which "appeal to the people's need for self-actualization," and include responsibility, interesting work, freedom, etc. (Weinbach & Taylor, p. 205). The term **job enrichment** refers to the efforts that managers can make to incorporate more motivation factors into the employee's work. Depending upon the nature of the organization and/or the nature of the particular job in question, job enrichment may not be a realistic notion. In these situations, two similar concepts are suggested. The first is **job enlargement,** which refers to a "limited expansion of an individual's job responsibilities," for example giving employees input on decisions that involve their work, like housekeeping staff giving input about which supplies are most effective and should be purchased (Weinbach & Taylor, 2010, p. 206). **Job rotation** involves changing particular job tasks, locations, etc, at intervals in order to avoid boredom among employees. This allows employees to vary their experiences,in some capacity and to some degree, even performing tasks that might otherwise not allow for great stimulation. For instance, a custodial staff in a large and mechanized organization might be rotated through departments, chaning each week or month. This allows employees to experience working in a different environment, or around different people. Herzberg's ideas also stand in contrast to earlier classical theories which suggested that money, only a hygiene factor according to the two-factor theory, was a primary motivator. =McClelland's Needs Theory= Angie Iafrate

David McClelland proposed that workers can fall primarily into one of three distinct categories that determine what need they seek to fulfill in the work environment, and therefore what may serve as a motivator to them in the workplace. The first category is **power.** Those with a need for power are most likely to seek managerial, supervisory, or other positions which will allow control/influence over subordinates. According to Weinbach and Taylor, "They enjoy exercising power and never seem to get enough of it" (2011, p. 209). As such, relationships in the workplace are fostered in the eyes of the power-seeking individual primarily for the purpose of gaining power, not for other personal reasons. Their contributions to the organization can include a willingness to take seriously and work diligently in a position that affords them power. A potential danger, on the other hand, is being perceived as power-hungry by coworkers can lead to resentment and a negative work climate

On the other end of the specturm are **affiliation**-motivated individuals, whose "activities seem to be aimed at being loved and accepted and at avoiding rejection," and while they may be of a giving nature, "they give primarily in order to receive" (2011, p. 209). Affiliation-motivated individuals may be those in the oranization who "often make personal sacrifices in order to please superiors and to help out when needed," but a potential downfall is an inability to say "no," which leads to taking on tasks that "can occupy great amounts of time and effort that can interfere with efficiency" (Weinbach & Taylor, 2011, p. 210). Coworkers may begin taking advantage of the affiliation-motivated individual, either consciously or unconsciously, which can ultimately lead as well to feelings of resentment, this time on the part of the individual him/herself.

A third category is that of **achievement,** where workers are "driven by a strong need for achievement" and "crave success, but never really believe that they have achieved it" (Weinbach & Taylor, 2011, p. 209). One contribution made to organizations by achievement-oriented individuals is that "they are likely to work hard at tasks that promise individual recognition or some tangible indicator of success," while a potential downfall is that they may be as critical of coworkers' output as they are of their own in their personal quest for achievement, which can lead to great resentment in the workplace (Weinbach & Taylor, 2011, p. 210).

Of course it is possible that a single worker will display characteristics from more than one category. Also, the theory is not all-encompassing as described above, and McClelland has investigated the possibility of an "avoidance" cateogry of motivators which suggest that "an obsession with fear of failure, fear of rejection, fear of success, and fear of power" are what dictate a worker's behavior (Weinbach & Taylor, 2011, p. 210). In any case, as in that of Maslow's hierarchy, McClelland's theory has contributed useful ideas to the study of motivation, which can in turn inform managers' decisions about how to help their own employees meet the needs of their diversified staff members.

=Social Learning Theory= Jessica Laffrey



Social Learning Theory///Social Cognitive Theory// is the product of many years of exploration and alteration by researchers such as; Jean Lave, Lev Vygotsky, N.E Miller & J. Dollard, Jullian Rotter and most famously Albert Bandura(1977).

Social Learning Theory describes the phenomenon of //Social learning// as it occurs between two or more individuals participating in a social exchange. This exchange can be verbal and/or nonverbal. The exchange consists of an individual(receiver) observing the communicative output of another individual(sender) in their environment (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997, 2001). This theory is defined by the following stages:

1) Observation, An individual receives information from another individual in his/her environment by the act of //observation//. This information can trigger a positive, neutral, or negative response by the receiver.

2) Imitation If the receiver is positively affected by the response, he/she will most likely //imitate// the behavior. If the individual is unaffected by the response, he/she will most likely //forget// about the behavior. If the Individual in negatively affected by the response, he/she will most likely //avoid// the behavior.

3) Modeling After the receiver has processed the available information and separated the desirable behaviors (positive), unremarkable behaviors (neutral), and the undesirable behaviors (negative) he/she will initiate a trial //model//. At this time, the receiver becomes the sender. He/She will apply their perception of observed positive behavior and //send// their version of that behavior to a projected //receiver// in hopes that the //receiver// will interpret the behavior as //desirable//.

Bandura(1977, 1986, 1997, 2001) proposes that this cycle will continue within the following 4 stages: 1) Close Contact 2) Imitation of Superiors 3) Understanding of Concepts 4) Role Model Behavior

Although Social learning is typically associated with the social development of a child as childhood is a time of highly accelerated social growth, social learning is actually a life-long process. Everyone participating in society has achieved some level of social growth through observation, imitation, and modeling. This protocol is the basis for developing and recognizing societal norms, developing friendships, and simply finding a place in space. According to Bandura's research, Human Behavior is entirely too complicated to be managed by rewards/reinforcements. As individual beings, we send, receive, and process the information from our environment with our own unique lens. For this reason, Each individual response and imitation of received information will rarely replicate that of the sender in its entirety(

Alderfer's ERG Theory
According to Alderfer (1969), ERG (Existence, Relatedness, Growth) theory is built upon Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory. To begin his theory, Alderfer collapses Maslow's five levels of needs into three categories:


 * -Existence needs** are desires for physiological and material well-being. (In terms of Maslow's model, existence needs include physiological and safety needs.)
 * -Relatedness needs** are desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships. (In terms of Maslow's model, relatedness corresponds to social needs.)
 * -Growth needs** are desires for continued psychological growth and development. (In terms of Maslow's model, growth needs include esteem and self-realization.)

This approach proposes that unsatisfied needs motivate behavior and that as lower level needs are satisfied, they become less important. Higher level needs, though, become more important as they are satisfied and if these needs are not met, a person may move down the hierarchy, which Alderfer calls the //frustration-regression principle//. What he means by this term is that an already satisfied lower level need can become reactivated and influence behavior when a higher level need cannot be satisfied. As a result, managers should provide opportunities for workers to capitalize on the importance of higher level needs (Alderfer, 1969).

http://www.12manage.com/methods_alderfer_erg_theory.html = Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation = Doris Dennah

I look up several definitions of motivation while doing research for this discussion, but I found one particularly interesting, one that to me drove the point home. “Motivation can be explained as the driving force one has that propels them towards the achievement of goals” (Buzzle.com/articles/importance-of-extrinsic-motivation-at-the-work-place). In other words, motivation is the reason or force behind why people do things.

However, employee motivation can be class into two categories: Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic is the force that comes from within an employee himself. In other words the employee has a strong desire from within that drives him/her to do his/her job and the employee works because s/he is sincerely interested in the job. Simply put, intrinsic motivation is when one wants to do something. Extrinsic motivation is the force that makes one wants to do his/her job from external factors such as: reward (e.g. money, promotion, praise) positive motivation or avoidance of punishment (e.g. fear of losing one’s job) negative motivation. With extrinsic motivation, an employee may not find his/her job interesting or rewarding, but s/he is motivated to perform his/her job duties because of the resources the job will provide at the end of the day. Simply put, extrinsic motivation is when somebody wants you to do something.

The review of the literature shows that it is important to have both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation within the organization or at any work place. However, the literature also indicates that extrinsic motivation is what primarily leads employees to perform their job duties. Some employees are motivated by bonus, yet others are motivated simply by the appreciation they will receive from performing their job duties. It is therefore, incumbent upon the organization or social work managers or managers in general to motivate their employees //extrinsically//, in spite of the drawbacks, which I will discuss later. There are several benefits of having motivated employees and there are several things the organization or managers can do to motivate their employees extrinsically: (1) the promise of rewards, which could be in t he form of money/bonus, free trips, meal vouchers, movie tickets, and so forth or some employees just want to be praise and appreciated for what they do. (2) Offering growth opportunities (e.g. share holding, stocks) and (3) recognition; just to name a few. It is very beneficial to have motivated employees. Why? “If staff members’ needs can be met, they are more likely to be good workers, people who provide better services to our clients __our prime beneficiary” (Weinbach, 2008 p. 132). Also, employees who are motivated are more apt to work more productively and energetically. In addition, motivated employees are more likely to be open to assuming increased responsibilities. Therefore by focusing on motivation consciously, the organization can transform their employees into high achievers and reduce the rate of employees turn over. Motivated employees are more enthusiastic about coming to work which results into less employee absenteeism. Motivated employees are the real assets of any organization, in my opinion.

Reward Systems
Jessica Laffrey

Dictionary.com defines the term reward as follows: "to make return for or requite (service, merit, etc.); recompense"(2011).

The concept of rewards and punishments can be traced back to book of Genesis. God gave a directive to Adam and Eve to not indulge in the fruit from the tree of knowledge. Their disobedience resulted in what some may consider the punishment of painful childbirth for women and the hardship of working the land for men. Had Adam and Eve obeyed God's instructions, it is believed that childbirth would be painless and the land would produce freely(2000).


 * [[image:classical-conditioning.jpg width="431" height="257" caption="http://www.experiment-resources.com/images/classical-conditioning.jpg"]] || [[image:operant_conditioning.jpg width="415" height="266" caption="http://www.simplypsychology.org/skinner%20box.jpg"]] ||

The scientific framework of rewarding desirable behavior can also be connected to the work of Ivan Pavlov in Classical Conditioning as well with Edward Thorndike, John Watson, and B. F. Skinner as they explored Operant conditioning.

The basic concept for reward system is that an individual will receive a reward(positive stimulus) for engaging in a preferred behavior. If the individuals fails to perform the preferred behavior, the reward(positive stimulus) will be withdrawn or a punishment(negative stimulus) will be introduced in its place.

The thought behind reward systems is that the reward will serve as motivation for the individual to perform in positive behavior consistently with the motivation of a pending reward. As the expectations of their performance increases, so with the quality of reward. This in essence will support consistent performance and consistent improvement in performance as the motivation increases with the quality of a potential reward.

The token economy practice that is commonly used in school systems and the ID/DD field today as a strategy for achieving Positive Behavior. This method of intervention is applied to an individual's Positive Behavior Support Plan to decrease undesirable behavior and increase desirable behavior through positive reinforcements. "Tokens function in a manner very similar to the way that money functions in general society; they have little or no inherent value and are usually delivered immediately following the occurrence of behavior. At a convenient time tokens are exchanged for desired reinforces. In this way they serve as a transition between the behavior and reinforcement( Wheatley, West, Charlton, Sanders, Smith, & Taylor, 2009)

Boundaries to Motivation
Christine Tyree

Boundaries to motivation can be numerous. Looking at all the ways to motivate personnel can also be something to stop it. We all have needs when it comes to our jobs and we want our employes to meet those needs.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs correlates to motivation in that as the lower levels are met we need to be motivated by something else so it goes higher on the pyramid. "Managers must understand that employees will be motivated by unmet needs and that once a need is satisfied, it is no longer a motivator (Fisher, 2009)."

Herzberg's two-factor theory has motivation factors as the second group. "Motivation factors appeal to people's need for self-actualization. They include, for example, challenge, interesting work, freedom, responsibility, and potential for growth (Weinbach, 2011)." Each of these can be a boundary to motivation. If the employee feels the job is the same drudgery day in and day out, the motivation is gone. Interesting work is a dual edge sword if the employee no longer finds interest in his job. Freedom and responsibility are two of the biggest motivators. Freedom may disppear as the time goes on if the feeling erodes away. The more responsibilities an employee takes on, the more the employer will want to give and before the employee knows it, the employee loses his reason to be motivated under all the additional tasks they have.

Values and ethics can be a boundary whether you are a social worker or whatever. If the boss says to do something that the employee feels is wrong, it becomes a boundary. The same goes the opposite way as well. "Social work managers are often charged with motivating employees to perform well in their jobs. While management skills may suffice for task-related issues, motivation and organizational innovation requires leadership (Fisher, 2009)." Here again if a manager falls short of these the employees will not do the work satisfactorily. In many social services agencies the leaders are not social workers and often do not effectively motivate employees due to the difference in style and education.

Elizabeth Fisher talked about the need for social work managers to "receive the necessary education to understand modes of motivation and leadership (2009). She feels the future lies in education and research. "Social work administrators are encouraged to be intentional in their efforts to learn about motivation and leadership through continued education, practical testing of their practices, and publication of their results (Fisher,k 2009). Learning more about motivation can end up limiting the boundaries that employees are having today.

As for ethics, people are people and there will never be a day that every employee can agree on the same thing. Interpretations of ethics comes not only from the NASW Code of Ethics, but also the employee. Boundaries to motivation can be simply be bad day or it can be that the employee flatly refuses to perfom a job because they feel it is wrong and takes away a right from our clients.